According to the theory of chromium poor, chromium carbide will be precipitated on the upper edge of the grain boundary of the weld and heat affected zone when the A514 grade Q quenched. It is often used as a structural steel in constructing building, cranes, or other massive machines supporting excessive hundreds. A36 steel is used. A514: High strength steel, which is quenched and tempered with a yield strength of 100,000 PSI. Also known as high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steel. 29%, it is considered to be the mild steel (content of carbon ≤ 0. Each. However, D1. e. The ASTM A633 specification is the Standard Specification for Normalized High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel Plates when superior notch toughness is needed at low temperatures. q machinability. A material's machinability, which includes aspects like cutting, drilling, and shaping, describes how easily it can be machined. Thickness. You can make almost any steel shiny by machining it hard and fast. 1 This specification covers several grades of carbon and alloy steel seamless mechanical tubing. 3–0. As a result, type 1 A513 steel frequently shows up. Properties with values for just one material (1, in this case) are not shown. The most important are high yield strength at 90 or 100. Included Angle 60; Cutter Diameter 0. Plates > 2-1/2" and ≤ 6" in thickness have a minimum Yield Strength requirement of 90 ksi. 1):Cutting conditions, Recommended Carbide Grades, Equivalent Material Standards, and Chemical Composition. with good weldability and toughness. heavier thicknesses for internal soundness. Applications include truck & trailer frames, heavy construction equipment, and crane booms. A514 Steel Plate Requirements. ASTM A514/A514M grade B steel also has excellent mechanical properties and is ideal for use in high-stress environments. The grades are listed in Tables 1-3. According to the charts, cutting speed of T1 is approximately 40% that of 1212, or 65 surface feet per minute. More Info. Mill the cutting edge with a cemented carbide milling cutter and polish it with a polishing machine. up to 1. Details. Machinability: 0. 25 in) 12:ASTM A283 General purpose, low-cost structural quality plate. . A514 grade Q structural steel material, A514Gr. = inches per revolution. The Clean-Cut/LFM 20 families of plate steel were developed for improved machining. The added lead to the chemical composition provides improved machinability but the added lead content also reduces the overall strength of this alloy. A516 is the most popular pressure vessel. FAX: 1 (973) 276-5050. A514 steels are used where a weldable, machinable, very high strength steel is required to save weight or meet ultimate strength requirements. Per Table 4. A572 carbon steel has a generally good machinability rating. A mechanical tubing made from low carbon steel and electric resistance welded. A514 is also known as T-1 steel and offers high strength with weldable, machinable properties. ASME SA514 Grade B high strength weldable steel plate has high strength, good fatigue resistance, high toughness and low brittle transition temperature, good cold forming property and welding performance; good corrosion resistance and wear resistance. This steel plate is suitable at low temperatures and is quenched and tempered for increased strength. 0. Plates > 2-1/2" and ≤ 6" in thickness have a minimum Yield Strength requirement of 90 ksi. Ultra-Strength Carbon Steel (AHSS) Round Tubes The same steel used in automobile bodies, this AHSS (advanced high-strength steel) allows you to fabricate high-strength parts using thinner material than you could with. Brinell Hardness: 240 to 250: 120 to 130: Elastic (Young's, Tensile) Modulus, GPa: 190: 190:This SSTD provides for a qualified American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) weld procedure for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) of ASTM A514 Grade B (UNS No. This alloy steel is rugged and robust, making it difficult to machine. SAE-AISI 1018 Steel. 870 (1600) 302 HB. It is typically used when abrasion resistance and high-impact. A36/1018 Steel is a mild, low carbon steel that is machinable, weldable and useful where high-strength is not required, such as fixtures and mounting plates. A514 grade E high strength steel,WTST 37-3 steel plate is a kind of carbon steel plate. 20-0. It has a minimum yield strength of 100 kilopounds per square inch, or KSI, up to 2-1/2 inches thick, and a 90 KSI minimum yield strength from. We can also let customers enjoy our other pretreatment services, such as A514 Gr C alloy steel plate cutting, welding, drilling, galvanizing, etc. The part has 5" diameter bores of . A514 (B) A514 (S) A514 (E) Common PGI Inventory. For each property being compared, the top bar is ASTM A514 steel and the bottom bar is SAE-AISI 1020. Metric. The sizing machine uses a cone-shaped bit to rotate into the steel embryo at high speed to drill holes to form steel pipes. It can have a very high tensile strength among the wrought alloy steels in the same category in the database. A514 Alloy (ASTM A514, ASTM A6) is a structural/mechanical alloy steel plate with great workability and weldability. A514 steel plate is quenched and tempered for increased strength, and is roughly three times stronger than plain carbon steel. We strive to be the go-to destination for professionals in. 1) Align the component for machining. 5 inch (63. ASTM A514 is a low carbon quenched and tempered alloy steel that is a low-cost,. Third, the ASTM A514 quenched and tempered. A514 steel plate—also known as T1 steel—is. T-1 steel, unlike AR400, is an alloy steel covered by ASTM A514 / A514M - 05 (2009) Standard Specification for High-Yield-Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate, Suitable for Welding. Quenched and tempered for increased strength. Capabilities include forging, heat treating, and machining: 250 RMS; 125 RMS; finish to print parts, DFARS, ITARS compliance. in the heat treatment, A514 Grade H shall be heat treatment by the mill to conform to the tensile and. As for ASTM A514 steel plate machinability, ASTM A514 steel can be done cutting, welding, drilling, milling, general machining and so on processing. Sometimes, we find that custom stocking programs help our customers react faster to changes. AISI 1045 steel is characterized by good weldability, good machinability, and high strength and impact properties in either the normalized or hot-rolled condition. The processing of ASTM A514 Grade Q/ A514 Gr. A516 is the most popular pressure vessel. The properties of ASTM A514 steel include eight common variations. Also known as high-strength low-alloy (HSLA). A572 Steel Plate. Physical properties. E grade bridge steel is suitable for low temperature and severe cold environment or bridge. A529 grade 50 is a particularly strong steel. The monthly replenishment is about 12000 tons. A514Gr. Details. Each. Details. Grades Stocked: A514, AR400, AR500, AR200, A656-80, A572-50, A36, A710; Armor Grades Stocked: Mil A 46100, Mil A 12560 Cl1, Omega Armor (NIJ & UL Level Standards). 4 in/min FPT = Feed Per ToothAfter extrusion, the A514 grade Q quenched and tempered steel tube shall be removed for sizing. Using the conventional welding practices, like SMAW, SAW, and GMAW, MIL-A-46100 armor plate can be welded. AISI A514 Steel Machining. . He has to quote it and the job is large. ASTM A514 is a specification for 100 kilopounds-per-square-inch-yield, low-alloy, quenched-and-tempered steel intended for structural applications and is typically known in the industry as USS (United States Steel) nomenclature T1®, regardless of the manufacturer. T1 Steel Hardness. Don't confuse Tungsten High Speed Steel 18-4-1 (T1) with ASTM A514 Constructional Alloy Steel Plate (also T1)A514 grade B steel material,Structural steel for bridges is mainly used to make riveted and bolted welded bridge steel structures such as highway bridges, railway bridges, sea-crossing bridges, overpasses, viaducts, and large mechanical bridge cranes. 05:. A514GrQ modified steel plate is a rack steel for jack-up offshore drilling platforms. 1026 steel is denser and heavier than A513 steel, making it more suitable for high-stress applications. This makes it easy to bend, much like A-500 steel. A514 steel is a particular type of high strength steel, which is quenched and tempered alloy steel, with a yield strength of 100,000 psi (100 ksi or approximately 700 MPa). Availability. Technical parameters of steel plate and profile steel surface pretreatment production line. As I recall, T-1 is a US Steel trade name for a high strength low alloy (HSLA) constructional steel plate. The mechanical properties of AISI A514 grade H alloy steel are outlined in the following table. A514 steel plate—also known as T1 steel—is. A514 Steel Plate. The carbon content of 0. ASTM A514 Grade H is a quenched and tempered alloy steel plate for structural applications requiring high yield strength combined with good formability and toughness. Scope. Each grade has separate. Tensile strength, yield (@0. spock Stainless. United States Steel was first to introduce this fine material under their proprietary name T-1 steel. ISO H – HARD STEEL. It can be machined using conventional techniques, provided they are correctly applied. Plates > 2-1/2" and ≤ 6" in thickness have a minimum Yield Strength requirement of 90 ksi. Q high strength weldable steel plate is between 235-290, yield greater than 630MPa, tensile strength at 700MPa above. 200%) 690 MPa. Q steel plate. For each property being compared, the top bar is AISI 304 stainless steel and the bottom bar is ASTM A514 steel. In this way, under the same conditions, alloy steel has higher strength than carbon steel, ASTM A514 QT steel plate. Chemical Composition. 008-0. K11630) high-strength (tensile strength of 110,000 psi or more) steel plate (also known as T-1 steel) up to a maximum thickness of 2 inches. . ASTM A514 is a low carbon quenched and tempered alloy steel that combines low-cost with high performance for structural use, high wear machining applications, cranes and other machinery, and more. Satisfactory machining and welding characteristics. Based on the A514 Gr B alloy steel plate steel trade, the company mainly deals in Baosteel products: color coating, zinc plating, fingerprint resistance, cold rolling, hot rolling, pickling, electrical steel and other products, and can order the futures of the company's products on behalf of manufacturers. Users can obtain high case hardness coupled with high core strength and toughness. 04% Phosphorus (P), 0. Murfreesboro. Alpharetta (Atlanta Plate Processing) 2005 Grassland Pkwy. ASTM A36 (SS400, S275) Structural Carbon Steel ASTM A514 Alloy Steel. CC Aluminum. ASTM A514 Alloy Steel. 002 x 4 = 21. Each grade has different chemistry. The purpose of these processes is to enhance the physical and mechanical properties of this steel. The tensile strength of A514 alloy steel is specified as at least 100 ksi (689 MPa) up to a 2. Details. It can be machined using conventional techniques, provided they are correctly applied. GRADE S. When compared to standard 1112 steel, which has 100% machinability, the machinability of A572 Grade 45 steel is rated at 70%. 1020’s Poison’s ratio is 0. T1 Steel Plate A514. Thread starter CC; Start date Apr 29, 2019; Replies 2 Views 4,339 C. A514 GRQ, ASTM A514 GRQ, A514 GR. Tensile strength, ultimate. The normalizing process is designed to relieve stresses, which results in improved ductility and toughness. 0. 05% Sulfur (S), 0. Details. A 514 Grade A could be welded utilizing a. Under the tank's intended load, the seam between the two different steels sees about 25,000 psi. Depending on the shape of the part, the amount of finish machining required, and the number of parts required, forging the part from 4130 might actually be a viable option. It has a minimum tensile strength of 100 ksi (689 MPa) and at least 110 ksi (758 MPa) ultimate. 1020 also contains 0. Thickness: 0. 2 Orders for coarse round wire under this specification should include the following information: 4. Designed for a wide range of structural uses, as well as for machinery and. When welding is used for joining the weldable mechanical tube grades, the welding procedure shall be suitable for the grade, the condition of the components, and the intended service. Industrial IoT Industrial MRO Industrial Processing Equipment Innovators & Makers Lab Equipment Light & Laser Machining & Metal Working Manufacturing Technology Material Handling & Logistics. Universal Steel stocks A514 from ¼” to 8” thick, provided in the quenched & tempered (Q&T) condition. The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) determined the machinability ratings for a wide variety of materials and assigned 160 Brinell B-1112 steel (AISI No. It can be machined in the annealed condition, but the H1150M condition will have the best results. Properties. –. Details. Learn More. Elastic (Young's, Tensile) Modulus, GPa. or as your request Width: 0. 4140 alloy steel is generally harder and stronger than carbon steel. 690-895 Mpa. . 300 series is commonly used in the following processes: - DMLS / additive manufacturing - CNC machining - Swiss Turning - Laser Cutting - Stamping and. A514 steel plate remains strong even at low temperatures. 5"- in a big block- apprx 1. A572 Steel Plate. Flame Cut Burnouts ASTM A514 steel plate is a quenched and tempered alloy steel used in applications that require a particularly high yield strength. . A514 Alloy (ASTM A514, ASTM A6) is a structural/mechanical alloy steel plate with great workability and weldability. The ASTM A514 specification is the Standard Specification for High-Yield-Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate, Suitable for Welding used in applications where Yield Strengths of ≥ 100 ksi are required for plates up to 2-1/2" thick, inclusive. 53% of the 1020 steel composition. A514 steel is known for its higher tensile and yield strength compared to A36 steel. Stronger than low-carbon steel with equally good machinability, 1045 carbon steel is widely used for bolts, studs, and shafts. A519 seamless tubing is commonly used in applications requiring machining, heat treating, close tolerances, smooth finishes, and. Summary Rake Angle: 11° -13°. A high strength material with a yield strength over 100 ksi, QT-100 (ASTM A514) is used in a multitude of applications. The max thickness of A514 Grade H is 50mm. Plates > 2-1/2" and ≤ 6" in thickness have a minimum Yield Strength requirement of 90 ksi. For each property being compared, the top bar is ASTM A514 steel and the bottom bar is SAE-AISI 1020 steel. ASTM A514. Steel Warehouse supplies ASTM A514 steel (also known as T1) grades A, B, E, F, H, P, Q & S. Not only it is more stronger than common A36 steel angle, but also its high-content of Manganese makes A529-50 very suitable for construction of bridges, high-rise steel buildings, rivet and bolt, as well as. Each grade is limited to a range of thicknesses. 64: A514 (T1) 3/4: 0. 4. Cooling/Agent. As the carbon content grows between 0. The ASTM A514 specification is the Standard Specification for High-Yield-Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate, Suitable for Welding used in applications where Yield Strengths of ≥ 100 ksi are required for plates up to 2-1/2" thick, inclusive. The source standarts should always be checked for the specific purpose for each material, in case of doubt. The center of the caps can be as high as 50,000 psi. 7 and 160 mm. A514 steel plate is known for its toughness, weldability, and high yield strength. 75 - 1. Minimum yield strength of 100,000 psi. Main Material Property List. Scope. Branches featuring AR400 | AR400F Steel Plate products. 5086 Email. Grade 50 contains more alloying elements than plain carbon steel and. Notes:. 5 mm, Grade G10100 in approximately 600 kg for metric orders to ASTM A510 dated _____. Tight-Tolerance Hardened Multipurpose 4140 Alloy Steel Sheets and Bars. A major aerospace manufacturer switched to Sandvik GC1025 carbide inserts to re-bore a massive forging of hardened Type 300M steel, 4340 modified. This page shows summary ranges across all of them. I don't know the precise spec for the supplied block apart from just "T1", at the moment. 90% manganese, and trace amounts of silicon and phosphorus has a lot of uses in many different industries. Standard Specification for High-Yield-Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate, Suitable for Welding A0514-81 ASTM|A0514-81|en-US Standard Specification for High-Yield-Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate, Suitable for Welding Standard A514 Standard Specification for High-Yield-Strength, Quenched. Heat treated for enhanced hardness and strength, A514 alloy steel is suitable for structural applications and supporting heavy loads. Has good surface finish and forming qualities. Q alloy steel plate with thickness of 80-152mm. 101. Work Hardening Steel The controlled carbon range of 1020 improves the machinability of this grade. Branches featuring 4140 Steel Plate products. Mechanical Properties. With a carbon content of roughly 0. ASTM A514 steel plate, also known as T-1 steel plate, is a popular grade of quenched and tempered (Q) steel that offers high strength, weldability and machinability. Details. Brinell Hardness: 200: 240 to 250: Elastic (Young's, Tensile) Modulus, GPa: 190: 190: Elongation at Break, % 26:This steel is available in four grades: A, C, D, and E. Mechanical Properties. If you have a requirement for A514 Steel a514 steel a514 a514 grade q a514 steel grades astm a514 grade b steel a514 steel vs a36 forming a514 steel a514 grade s steel properties steel astm a514 a514 steel suppliers, please contact us by email admin@corten-asteel. ~. Because of this material’s high yield strength it is ideal for projects requiring a light weight steel without sacrificing durability or toughness. AISI 304 (S30400) Stainless Steel ASTM A514 Alloy Steel. Customers calling for Alloy A514 a lot of times are upset about dealing with fluctuations in their build schedules. Transport trailers and agricultural equipment. A514 T1 steel plate provides a high yield strength of 100 ksi min. Details. 5” thick, and a 90ksi minimum yield strength from 2. There are 31 material properties with values for both materials. Speeds and Feeds. A514 grade Q structural steel material, A514Gr. 4) 1 st Set up- Top rail machining , Flanges machining. 025, WOC: 1. 0. Welding. Rake Angle: 11° -13°. T1 Steel Plate A514. Welding. Continuous hot-dip galvanizing is one of the main galvanizing methods used in the world. The company adheres to green development, supported by scientific and technological innovation and technological progress, vigorously advocates the production and life style of saving, environmental protection, civilization. ASTM A514 steel equivalent materials are low-cost, high performing materials for structural use and. SA514 Grade B High Strength Low Alloy Steel Plate US $450-850 / Ton;You can make almost any steel shiny by machining it hard and fast. 100XF is available as temper leveled, cut-to-length plate. 3 mm [0. E grade bridge steel is suitable for low temperature and severe cold environment or bridge. 42: 3920. General Info About A514 This steel plate is a. A514 T-1®: This is a heat-treated steel that offers high strength capabilities, weldability, and has few preheat requirements. Stainless Steel – An alloy of metal, chromium and manganese produces a corrosion-resistant steel ASTM A514 GR Q steel plate supplier with yield power of as much as 1,560 Mpa and a tensile strength of up to 1,600 Mpa. Due to poor corrosion resistance, it is often clad. The seam has a full penetration weld. A588 welds similar to low carbon steels like ASTM A36 and ASTM A572. If 514 is the correct ASTM number, there is a table of alloys within the spec and one or more of these alloys are susceptible to brittle failure if. 101. Disadvantages: Low alloy steel plate is killed. However, 4130 steel is much more machinable with a 70% rating when compared to 1212 carbon steel as a baseline. ASTM A514 structural steel,We are a professional exporter of JIS 3101 SS 540 steel and a steel stockist in China. A514 ≤ 2. ASTM A514 steel plate, also known as T-1 steel plate, is a popular grade of quenched and tempered (Q&T) steel that offers high strength, weldability and. The most. The ASTM A514 specification is the Standard Specification for High-Yield-Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate, Suitable for Welding used in applications where Yield Strengths of ≥ 100 ksi are required for plates up to 2-1/2" thick, inclusive. For thicknesses over 2 inches, the flatness guarantee is a maximum of 6mm/m. E steel plates supplied by BBN steel are applied in transport trailers, construction equipment, crane booms, mobile man-lifts, agricultural equipment, heavy vehicle frames and chassis, and welded bridge structurals,. The flatness toler-ance for as-supplied product is ½ ASTM A6. and has average machinability. MIL-A-46100 has good machinability capabilities. Aluminum Non-Ferrous Metal Cast Iron Steel Stainless Steel Exotic Metal Titanium Plastic Wood Composites Graphite Hardened Alloys Green (unfired) TOOL DIMENSIONS. com. Therefore, the comprehensive mechanical properties of Q345 steel should be better than that of 16Mn steel, especially its low temperature properties. A514 Steel. The ASTM A514 specification is the Standard Specification for High-Yield-Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate, Suitable for Welding used in applications where Yield Strengths of ≥ 100 ksi are required for plates up to 2-1/2" thick, inclusive. 96” x 576”. Grade 50 is a Columbium-Vanadium steel that offers a minimum yield of 50,000 PSI. Stress Relieving is a heat treating process that consists of heating the steel to a temperature below the critical range to relieve the residual stresses resulting from hot rolling, welding, shearing, or gas cutting. Tensile strength, yield (@0. Steel Warehouse supplies ASTM A514 steel (also known as T1) grades A, B, E, F, H, P, Q & S. A514 Steel Plate aka T1 steel plate is a high strength steel plate designed for applications requiring optimal impact and abrasive resistance. Plates > 2-1/2" and ≤ 6" in thickness have a minimum Yield Strength requirement of 90 ksi. When welding is used for joining the weldable mechanical tube grades, the welding procedure shall be suitable for the grade, the condition of the components, and the intended service. In Canada 1 (416) 363-2244. ASTM A514. ASTM A36 and ASTM A572 are two popular types of structural steel, as their chemical compositions and mechanical properties give these materials high strength and machinability that are ideal for structural applications. A514 Gr. I would like to hear about experiences milling this material: tool life, chip loads,. Good formability and weldability are also characteristic. A514 Steel Plate aka T1 metal plate is a high energy steel plate designed for purposes requiring optimum impression and abrasive resistance. Mechanical Properties. First, good toughness, stretching and crimping can be done well. attempting to tap AR500. Land Angle: Positive. Joined Mar 14, 2006 Location NW Pennsylvania. ASME SA514 Grade B high strength weldable steel plate has high strength, good fatigue resistance, high toughness and low brittle transition temperature, good cold forming property and welding performance; good corrosion resistance and wear resistance. Search this website. Nov 12, 2007 #5. I'm in need to make a big hole- apprx. F):Cutting conditions, Recommended Carbide Grades, Equivalent Material Standards, and Chemical Composition. What Is the Difference Between A572 Carbon Steel and A514 Steel?Customers calling for Alloy A514 a lot of times are upset about dealing with fluctuations in their build schedules. Grades A and B both have good material machinability. ASTM A514 High Strength Steel Plate is a conservative tempered and quenched alloy steel plate relatively designed for structural applications. Alloy Steel Quik Guide. A36 mild steel is often compared to AISI 1018, A36 carbon steel is commonly hot rolled, while 1018 steel is commonly cold rolled. Description. One of our forging specialists is standing by to help you save time and money on your next. In the first quarter of 2020, the output of EU steel pipe industry decreased by 13. It has good weldability. machining. A514 is a high-strength, low-alloy steel designed for heavy-duty applications, while A36 is a mild steel commonly used in general construction and fabrication projects. I don't think its going to make all that muchASTM A514 structural steel,Low alloy steel plate was originally developed for large diameter oil and gas pipeline in 1960s. A514 Steel Plate aka T1 metal plate is a high energy steel plate designed for applications requiring optimum influence and abrasive resistance. A516 Grade 70 Steel Plate. ASTM A514 Grade S is a quenched and tempered alloy steel plate for structural applications requiring high yield strength combined with good formability and toughness. 96″, 120″. A572 Steel Plate. ; 100/130 over 2½-6" incl. warehouse sitting on 18 acres. 2) Check the tooling as per programm. ASTM A514 alloy steel plate is known for its high yield strength, weldability, and toughness, even at low temperatures. B high strength weldable steel plates are mainly used in places. 15% and below creates ductile steel with unbreakable chips. Therefore, according to the proportional relationship of its yield point, the use of low-alloy high-strength steel allows the stress to be 1. 20-0. Size. 1 (973) 276-5000 / 1 (800) 600-9290. Used in construction, it provides excellent durability in subzero temperatures. Grades H, F, and Q of Alloy A514 steel plate have. 110000 - 130000 psi. 954. Also referred to as T-1 steel. Alpharetta, Georgia 30004. As a result, customers can expect longer-lasting wear parts in some of the toughest applications. Second, the bearing strength of manganese steel plate is good and it can bear a lot of gravity. 87 g/cm³ (0. The A514 plate steels are a group of quenched and tempered alloys with attractive advantages and characteristics. 0 inches have a specified tensile strength of 90 ksi (621 MPa) and 100 - 130 ksi (689 - 896 MPa. 1020, 1045, 8620, 4140, 4340. . Each. Next: 1/6 inch thickness A573 grade 65 CS steel carbon plate. A514 Alloy (ASTM A514, ASTM A6) is a structural/mechanical alloy steel plate with great workability and weldability. The A514 Grade E/A514 Gr. ASTM A513 Carbon Steel Permissible Variations in Dimensions (Wall Thickness) Permissible variations in wall thickness for A513-1 steel tubing are ±10% of the nominal wall. It is a professional A514. The Brinell Hardness number differentiates the abrasion resistant steel grades. Certain chemical additions improve hardenability, strength, and toughness. General Info About A656. A 36 standard Hot roll Architectual Steel ( "I" beams "C" channels) 36K Minimum Yield stress. A standard resulfurized and rephosphorized grade carbon steel and a free machining steel. 60-0. It has the characteristics of high-quality steel, such as strength, toughness, ductility, forming, welding and cutting, abrasion, high temperature, fatigue and so on.